Geospatial distribution of mycotoxins in wheat collected in summer and winter seasons from a selected area
Main Article Content
Keywords
Aflatoxin, ochratoxin, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, HPLC
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites generated by various fungal species. Mycotoxins in wheat may pose dangers for the health of consumers as most of them are potent carcinogens. The objective of this study was to check the level of contamination by multiple mycotoxins in wheat samples obtained from local stores in Lahore, during the summer and winter seasons. HPLC coupled with the diode array detector (DAD) was utilized for the quantification of multiple mycotoxins. In total, 50% of wheat samples were contaminated with multiple mycotoxins. This exceeds the allowable limit set by the European Union. The highest levels of total aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxins (OTAs), deoxynivalenol (DON), and fumonisins (FUMs) were found to be 115.19 μg/kg, 24.13 μg/kg, 112.00 mg/kg, and 2.81 mg/kg, respectively. The contamination levels in wheat samples were as follows: AF (0.56–115.19 μg/kg), OTA (0.12–24.13 μg/kg), DON (0.01–112.00 mg/kg), and FUMs (0.02–2.81 mg/kg). The presence of multiple mycotoxins was observed to be more rampant in wheat gathered during summer compared to winter. Nonetheless, a statistically significant difference (p<0.05) was observed among AF, OTA, and DON in both seasons, whereas no significant difference (p>0.05) was detected for FUM. This research highlighted the geospatial distribution of contamination by multiple mycotoxins in wheat, and the results are quite alarming. It is essential to actively monitor contamination by multiple mycotoxins in wheat crops to ensure safety and safeguard consumer health.
References
Agriopoulou S., Stamatelopoulou E., Varzakas T. 2020. Advances in occurrence, importance, and mycotoxin control strategies: Prevention and detoxification in foods. Foods. 9(2): 137–184. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9020137
Aloui A., Salah-Abbès J.B., Zinedine A., Meile J.C., Riba A., Durand N., Montet D., Abbès S., Brabet C. 2023. Occurrence of pre-and postharvest multi-mycotoxins in durum wheat grains collected in 2020 and 2021 in two climatic regions of Tunisia. Food Addit. Contam. B. 16(3): 274–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2023.2219996
Asghar M.A., Ahmed A., Iqbal J., Zahir E., Nauman H. 2016. Fungal flora and aflatoxin contamination in Pakistani wheat kernels (Triticum aestivum L.) and their attribution in seed germination. JFDA. 24(3): 635–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2016.02.001
Asif I. 2024. Welfare Implications of High Wheat Prices on Heterogeneous Households in Pakistan (Doctoral dissertation, School of Social Sciences and Humanities (S3H) NUST).
Asif M. 2024. Effects of Cultivars and Fungicides on Foliar Fungal Diseases and Fusarium Head Blight in Winter Wheat (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Nebraska-Lincoln).
Bouelet Ntsama I.S., Frazzoli C., Pouokam G.B., Colizzi V. 2023. Occurrence and dietary risk assessment of mycotoxins in most consumed foods in Cameroon: Exploring current data to understand futures challenges. Foods. 12(8): 1713. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12081713
Cheng S., Feng X., Liu G., Zhao N., Liu J., Zhang Z., Liu Y. 2022. Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in maize in north China. Toxins. 14(8): 521. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14080521
Codex Alimentarius Commission. 2012. Maximum residue limits for veterinary drugs in foods. Updated as at the 35th Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, CAC/MRL,1–40.
European Commission Regulation, EC. 2006. Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. OJEU. L364: 5e24.
European Commission Regulation, EC (2010). EC No. 165/2010 of 26 February 2010, Amending regulation (EC) No 1881/2006. Setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs as regards aflatoxins. OJEU. L50: 8–12.
Ezekiel C.N. and Sombie J.I. 2014. Survey of aflatoxins and fungi in some commercial breakfast cereals and pastas retailed in Ogun State, Nigeria. Nat. Sci. 12(6): 27–32. http://www.sciencepub.net/nature.
Feldman M. and Levy A.A. 2023. Evolution of wheat under cultivation. In Wheat Evolution and Domestication (pp. 605–663). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30175-9_13
Gozzi M., Blandino M., Bruni R., Capo L., Righetti L., Dall’Asta C. 2024. Mycotoxin occurrence in kernels and straws of wheat, barley, and tritordeum. Mycotoxin Res. 40(1): 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-024-00521-w
Feyzi Y., Malekirad A., Fazilati M., Salavati H., Habibollahi S., Rezaei M. 2017. Metals that are important for food safety control of bread Product. ABR. 258:S163-S164. https://doi.org/10.15515/abr.0976-4585.8.1.111116
Hedayati M.T., Omran S.M., Soleymani A., Armaki M.T. 2016. Aflatoxins in food products in Iran: A review of the literature. JJM. 9(7): e33235. https://doi.org/10.5812/jjm.33235
Iqbal S.Z., Asi M.R., Jinap S. 2013. Natural occurrence of aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin M1 in “halva” and its ingredients. Food Control. 34(2): 404–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.04.038
Irakli M.N., Skendi A., Papageorgiou M.D. 2017. HPLC-DAD-FLD method for simultaneous determination of mycotoxins in wheat bran. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 55(7): 690–696. https://doi.org/10.1093/chromsci/bmx022
Iram S., Fareed S.K., Chaudhary M., Nisa Iqbal M.U., Ghani R., Khan T.A., Abbas T. 2019. Identification of Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin in home mix layer poultry feed in relation to seasons in Karachi, Pakistan. Tropical animal health and production, 51, 1321–1327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-019-01818-0
Jaimez J., Fente C.A., Vazquez B.I., Franco C.M., Cepeda A., Mahuzier G., Prognon P. 2000. Application of the assay of aflatoxins by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection in food analysis. J. Chromatogr. A. 882(1–2): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00212-0
Khan S., Shahab S., Fani M.I., Wahid A. Khan A. 2021. Climate and weather condition of Balochistan province. Pakistan. Int. J. Econ. Environ. Geol. 12(2): 65–71. https://doi.org/10.46660/ijeeg.v12i2.104
Latham R.L., Boyle J.T., Barbano A., Loveman W.G., Brown N.A. 2023. Diverse mycotoxin threats to safe food and feed cereals. Essays Biochem. 67(5): 797–809. https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20220221
Lutfullah G. and Hussain A. 2012. Studies on contamination level of aflatoxins in some cereals and beans of Pakistan. Food Control. 23(1): 32–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.06.004
Magan N., Medina A., Aldred D. 2011. Possible climate‐change effects on mycotoxin contamination of food crops pre‐and postharvest. Plant Pathol. 60(1): 150–163.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3059.2010.02412.x
Majeed S. 2018. Analysis, inhibition and degradation of mycotoxins in foodstuffs (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Biotechnology Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan).
Milani J.M. 2013. Ecological conditions affecting mycotoxin production in cereals: A review. Veterinarni Medicina. 58(8): 405–411. https://doi.org/10.17221/6979-VETMED
Nada S., Nikola T., Bozidar U., Ilija D., Andreja R. 2022. Prevention and practical strategies to control mycotoxins in the wheat and maize chain. Food Control. 136: 108855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108855
Nazir A., Kalim I., Imran M., Bilal M.A., Zahra N., Ahmad A., Ehtisham-ul-Haque S. 2021. Incidences and bio-detoxification of aflatoxins in rice and cattle feed crops under different agro-ecological zones. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 30(2): 1949-1954
https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/121050
Nisa A., Zahra N., Yasha N.B. 2016. Comparative study of aflatoxins in brown rice samples of local and import quality. Int. Food Res. J. 23(1): 243. http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my
Patriarca A. and Pinto V.F. 2017. Prevalence of mycotoxins in foods and decontamination. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 14: 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2017.01.011 2214-7993/ã
Rana I.A., and Bhatti S.S. 2018. Lahore, Pakistan–Urbanization challenges and opportunities. Cities. 72: 348–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.09.014
Sadef Y., Shakil S., Majeed D., Zahra N., Abdallah F.B., Ali M.B. 2023. Evaluating aflatoxins and Sudan dyes contamination in red chili and turmeric and its health impacts on consumer safety of Lahore, Pakistan. Food Chem. Toxicol. 114116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2023.114116
Santos A.R., Carreiró F., Freitas A., Barros S., Brites C., Ramos F., Sanches Silva A. 2022. Mycotoxins contamination in rice: Analytical methods, occurrence and detoxification strategies. Toxins. 14(9): 647. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14090647
Sousa T.M.A., Batista L.R., Passamani F.R.F., Lira N.A., Cardoso M.G., Santiago W.D., Chalfoun S.M. 2019. Evaluation of the effects of temperature on processed coffee beans in the presence of fungi and ochratoxin A. J. Food Saf. 39(1): e12584. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfs.12584
Sun G., Wang S., Hu X., Su J., Zhang Y., Xie Y., Zhang H., Tang L., Wang J.S. 2011. Co-contamination of aflatoxin B1 and fumonisin B1 in food and human dietary exposure in three areas of China. Food Addit. Contam. 28(4): 461–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2010.544678
Sun J. and Wu Y. 2016. Evaluation of dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives from cereals in China. Food Control. 69: 90–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.04.040
Taheri N., Semnani S., Roshandel G., Namjoo M., Keshavarzian H., Chogan A.G., Kebria F.G., Joshaghani H. 2012. Aflatoxin contamination in wheat flour samples from Golestan Province, Northeast of Iran. Iran. J. Public Health. 41(9): 42–47. http://ijph.tums.ac.ir
Tittlemier S.A., Cramer B., DeRosa M.C., Dzuman Z., Kodikara C., Malone R., Maragos C., Suman M., Sumarah M.W. 2025. Developments in analytical techniques for mycotoxin determination: An update for 2023-24. World Mycotoxin J. 1(aop): 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1163/18750796-bja10013
Trucksess M.W. 2005. Natural toxins. In: Horwitz W., Latimer G.W. (Eds.), Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD, USA, pp. 1–85.
Turner N.W., Bramhmbhatt H., Szabo-Vezse M., Poma A., Coker R., Piletsky S.A. 2015. Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: An update (2009–2014). Analytica Chimica Acta. 901: 12–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2015.10.013 0
Yi Y., Fan K., Shan Y., Fu Q., Zhou X., Zhang Y., Zhang H. 2022. Study on sampling scheme for detecting mycotoxin during wheat storage. J. Sci. Food Agric. 102(11): 4752–4758. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.11840
Zahra N., Jamil N., Ahmad S.R., Munir S., Saeed M.K., Kalim I. 2017. Comparative analysis of brown and white rice samples for the presence of Aflatoxin B1 contamination and effect of environment temperature on Aflatoxin concentration during storage. Transylv Rev. 25: 4507–4515. http://transylvanianreviewjournal.org/.
Aloui A., Salah-Abbès J.B., Zinedine A., Meile J.C., Riba A., Durand N., Montet D., Abbès S., Brabet C. 2023. Occurrence of pre-and postharvest multi-mycotoxins in durum wheat grains collected in 2020 and 2021 in two climatic regions of Tunisia. Food Addit. Contam. B. 16(3): 274–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2023.2219996
Asghar M.A., Ahmed A., Iqbal J., Zahir E., Nauman H. 2016. Fungal flora and aflatoxin contamination in Pakistani wheat kernels (Triticum aestivum L.) and their attribution in seed germination. JFDA. 24(3): 635–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2016.02.001
Asif I. 2024. Welfare Implications of High Wheat Prices on Heterogeneous Households in Pakistan (Doctoral dissertation, School of Social Sciences and Humanities (S3H) NUST).
Asif M. 2024. Effects of Cultivars and Fungicides on Foliar Fungal Diseases and Fusarium Head Blight in Winter Wheat (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Nebraska-Lincoln).
Bouelet Ntsama I.S., Frazzoli C., Pouokam G.B., Colizzi V. 2023. Occurrence and dietary risk assessment of mycotoxins in most consumed foods in Cameroon: Exploring current data to understand futures challenges. Foods. 12(8): 1713. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12081713
Cheng S., Feng X., Liu G., Zhao N., Liu J., Zhang Z., Liu Y. 2022. Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in maize in north China. Toxins. 14(8): 521. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14080521
Codex Alimentarius Commission. 2012. Maximum residue limits for veterinary drugs in foods. Updated as at the 35th Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, CAC/MRL,1–40.
European Commission Regulation, EC. 2006. Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. OJEU. L364: 5e24.
European Commission Regulation, EC (2010). EC No. 165/2010 of 26 February 2010, Amending regulation (EC) No 1881/2006. Setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs as regards aflatoxins. OJEU. L50: 8–12.
Ezekiel C.N. and Sombie J.I. 2014. Survey of aflatoxins and fungi in some commercial breakfast cereals and pastas retailed in Ogun State, Nigeria. Nat. Sci. 12(6): 27–32. http://www.sciencepub.net/nature.
Feldman M. and Levy A.A. 2023. Evolution of wheat under cultivation. In Wheat Evolution and Domestication (pp. 605–663). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30175-9_13
Gozzi M., Blandino M., Bruni R., Capo L., Righetti L., Dall’Asta C. 2024. Mycotoxin occurrence in kernels and straws of wheat, barley, and tritordeum. Mycotoxin Res. 40(1): 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-024-00521-w
Feyzi Y., Malekirad A., Fazilati M., Salavati H., Habibollahi S., Rezaei M. 2017. Metals that are important for food safety control of bread Product. ABR. 258:S163-S164. https://doi.org/10.15515/abr.0976-4585.8.1.111116
Hedayati M.T., Omran S.M., Soleymani A., Armaki M.T. 2016. Aflatoxins in food products in Iran: A review of the literature. JJM. 9(7): e33235. https://doi.org/10.5812/jjm.33235
Iqbal S.Z., Asi M.R., Jinap S. 2013. Natural occurrence of aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin M1 in “halva” and its ingredients. Food Control. 34(2): 404–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.04.038
Irakli M.N., Skendi A., Papageorgiou M.D. 2017. HPLC-DAD-FLD method for simultaneous determination of mycotoxins in wheat bran. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 55(7): 690–696. https://doi.org/10.1093/chromsci/bmx022
Iram S., Fareed S.K., Chaudhary M., Nisa Iqbal M.U., Ghani R., Khan T.A., Abbas T. 2019. Identification of Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin in home mix layer poultry feed in relation to seasons in Karachi, Pakistan. Tropical animal health and production, 51, 1321–1327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-019-01818-0
Jaimez J., Fente C.A., Vazquez B.I., Franco C.M., Cepeda A., Mahuzier G., Prognon P. 2000. Application of the assay of aflatoxins by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection in food analysis. J. Chromatogr. A. 882(1–2): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00212-0
Khan S., Shahab S., Fani M.I., Wahid A. Khan A. 2021. Climate and weather condition of Balochistan province. Pakistan. Int. J. Econ. Environ. Geol. 12(2): 65–71. https://doi.org/10.46660/ijeeg.v12i2.104
Latham R.L., Boyle J.T., Barbano A., Loveman W.G., Brown N.A. 2023. Diverse mycotoxin threats to safe food and feed cereals. Essays Biochem. 67(5): 797–809. https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20220221
Lutfullah G. and Hussain A. 2012. Studies on contamination level of aflatoxins in some cereals and beans of Pakistan. Food Control. 23(1): 32–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.06.004
Magan N., Medina A., Aldred D. 2011. Possible climate‐change effects on mycotoxin contamination of food crops pre‐and postharvest. Plant Pathol. 60(1): 150–163.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3059.2010.02412.x
Majeed S. 2018. Analysis, inhibition and degradation of mycotoxins in foodstuffs (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Biotechnology Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan).
Milani J.M. 2013. Ecological conditions affecting mycotoxin production in cereals: A review. Veterinarni Medicina. 58(8): 405–411. https://doi.org/10.17221/6979-VETMED
Nada S., Nikola T., Bozidar U., Ilija D., Andreja R. 2022. Prevention and practical strategies to control mycotoxins in the wheat and maize chain. Food Control. 136: 108855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108855
Nazir A., Kalim I., Imran M., Bilal M.A., Zahra N., Ahmad A., Ehtisham-ul-Haque S. 2021. Incidences and bio-detoxification of aflatoxins in rice and cattle feed crops under different agro-ecological zones. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 30(2): 1949-1954
https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/121050
Nisa A., Zahra N., Yasha N.B. 2016. Comparative study of aflatoxins in brown rice samples of local and import quality. Int. Food Res. J. 23(1): 243. http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my
Patriarca A. and Pinto V.F. 2017. Prevalence of mycotoxins in foods and decontamination. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 14: 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2017.01.011 2214-7993/ã
Rana I.A., and Bhatti S.S. 2018. Lahore, Pakistan–Urbanization challenges and opportunities. Cities. 72: 348–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.09.014
Sadef Y., Shakil S., Majeed D., Zahra N., Abdallah F.B., Ali M.B. 2023. Evaluating aflatoxins and Sudan dyes contamination in red chili and turmeric and its health impacts on consumer safety of Lahore, Pakistan. Food Chem. Toxicol. 114116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2023.114116
Santos A.R., Carreiró F., Freitas A., Barros S., Brites C., Ramos F., Sanches Silva A. 2022. Mycotoxins contamination in rice: Analytical methods, occurrence and detoxification strategies. Toxins. 14(9): 647. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14090647
Sousa T.M.A., Batista L.R., Passamani F.R.F., Lira N.A., Cardoso M.G., Santiago W.D., Chalfoun S.M. 2019. Evaluation of the effects of temperature on processed coffee beans in the presence of fungi and ochratoxin A. J. Food Saf. 39(1): e12584. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfs.12584
Sun G., Wang S., Hu X., Su J., Zhang Y., Xie Y., Zhang H., Tang L., Wang J.S. 2011. Co-contamination of aflatoxin B1 and fumonisin B1 in food and human dietary exposure in three areas of China. Food Addit. Contam. 28(4): 461–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2010.544678
Sun J. and Wu Y. 2016. Evaluation of dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives from cereals in China. Food Control. 69: 90–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.04.040
Taheri N., Semnani S., Roshandel G., Namjoo M., Keshavarzian H., Chogan A.G., Kebria F.G., Joshaghani H. 2012. Aflatoxin contamination in wheat flour samples from Golestan Province, Northeast of Iran. Iran. J. Public Health. 41(9): 42–47. http://ijph.tums.ac.ir
Tittlemier S.A., Cramer B., DeRosa M.C., Dzuman Z., Kodikara C., Malone R., Maragos C., Suman M., Sumarah M.W. 2025. Developments in analytical techniques for mycotoxin determination: An update for 2023-24. World Mycotoxin J. 1(aop): 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1163/18750796-bja10013
Trucksess M.W. 2005. Natural toxins. In: Horwitz W., Latimer G.W. (Eds.), Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD, USA, pp. 1–85.
Turner N.W., Bramhmbhatt H., Szabo-Vezse M., Poma A., Coker R., Piletsky S.A. 2015. Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: An update (2009–2014). Analytica Chimica Acta. 901: 12–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2015.10.013 0
Yi Y., Fan K., Shan Y., Fu Q., Zhou X., Zhang Y., Zhang H. 2022. Study on sampling scheme for detecting mycotoxin during wheat storage. J. Sci. Food Agric. 102(11): 4752–4758. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.11840
Zahra N., Jamil N., Ahmad S.R., Munir S., Saeed M.K., Kalim I. 2017. Comparative analysis of brown and white rice samples for the presence of Aflatoxin B1 contamination and effect of environment temperature on Aflatoxin concentration during storage. Transylv Rev. 25: 4507–4515. http://transylvanianreviewjournal.org/.
Article Sidebar
Published
Jul 1, 2025
Article Details
How to Cite
Zahra, N., Jamil, N., Saeed, M. K., Javed, A. ., Ullah, N. ., Ullah, N., Sarwar, A., Aziz, T., El Hadi Mohamed, R., Al-Asmari, F., & Al-Joufi, F. A. (2025). Geospatial distribution of mycotoxins in wheat collected in summer and winter seasons from a selected area. Italian Journal of Food Science, 37(3), 267-278. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v37i3.3065
Section
Research
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright Agreement with Authors
Before publication, after the acceptance of the manuscript, Authors have to sign a Publication Agreement with "Italian Journal of Food Science", granting and assigning to "Italian Journal of Food Science" the perpetual right to distribute the work free of charge by any means and in any parts of the world, including the communication to the public through the journal website.
License for Published Contents
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
How to Cite
Zahra, N., Jamil, N., Saeed, M. K., Javed, A. ., Ullah, N. ., Ullah, N., Sarwar, A., Aziz, T., El Hadi Mohamed, R., Al-Asmari, F., & Al-Joufi, F. A. (2025). Geospatial distribution of mycotoxins in wheat collected in summer and winter seasons from a selected area. Italian Journal of Food Science, 37(3), 267-278. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v37i3.3065