Micronutrient intake and HbA1c in Saudi Arabian patients with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional analysis
Main Article Content
Keywords
diabetes type 2, HbA1c, macronutrients dietary intake, micronutrients dietary intake
Abstract
Diabetes is a major global health concern, with a high and increasing prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in Saudi Arabia. Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) is a key marker for long-term glycemic control. Despite the crucial role of diet, research on micronutrient intake within traditional Saudi diets is limited. This study investigated the association between micronutrient intake and HbA1c in Saudi T2DM patients. This cross-sectional study involved 196 adult T2DM patients in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dietary intake was assessed via 24-hour recalls, and HbA1c levels were biochemically measured. Participants were categorized into controlled (HbA1c < 8.0%) and uncontrolled (HbA1c ≥ 8.0%) groups. Group comparisons were conducted using t-tests and Chi-square tests. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine adjusted associations between nutrient intakes and elevated HbA1c, controlling for age and sex. Patients with uncontrolled HbA1c had significantly higher sodium intake and lower intakes of potassium, vitamin C, pantothenic acid, and selenium (all p ≤ 0.05). Adjusted logistic regression showed that higher vitamin C and selenium intakes were associated with lower odds of elevated HbA1c. Conversely, higher vitamin D and thiamine intakes were associated with increased odds. Pantothenic acid showed contradictory associations between mean differences and adjusted odds. This study identifies distinct dietary patterns linked to glycemic control. Uncontrolled HbA1c was associated with higher sodium and lower potassium, vitamin C, pantothenic acid, and selenium intakes. Adjusted analyses indicated that higher vitamin C and selenium intakes were linked to improved odds, while higher vitamin D and thiamine were linked to worse odds. The complex role of pantothenic acid warrants further investigation. These findings underscore the nuanced role of micronutrients in glycemic regulation, suggesting their potential for tailored dietary interventions in T2DM.
References
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Eshak, E. S., Muraki, I., Imano, H., Yamagishi, K., Tamakoshi, A., & Iso, H. (2021). Manganese intake from foods and beverages is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. Maturitas, 143, 127–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.10.009
Farid, S. M. (2013). Trace mineral status related to levels of glycated hemoglobin of type 2 diabetic subjects in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Medical Journal of the Islamic World Academy of Sciences, 21(2), 47–56.
Gogna, N., Krishna, M., Oommen, A. M., & Dorai, K. (2015). Investigating correlations in the altered metabolic profiles of obese and diabetic subjects in a South Indian Asian population using an NMR-based metabolomic approach. Molecular BioSystems, 11(2), 595–606. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4mb00507d
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Karalis, D. T. (2019). The beneficiary role of selenium in type II diabetes: A longitudinal study. Cureus, 11(12), e6443. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.6443
Kheriji, N., Boukhalfa, W., Mahjoub, F., et al. (2022). The role of dietary intake in type 2 diabetes mellitus: Importance of macro and micronutrients in glucose homeostasis. Nutrients, 14(10), 2132. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14102132
Kim, Y. M., Kim, J. D., & Jung, H. (2021). A cross-sectional study of the effects of physical activity and nutrient intakes on blood glucose control rates in middle-aged and elderly diabetes patients: Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2015–2017. Inquiry: A Journal of Medical Care Organization, Provision and Financing, 58, 469580211035727. https://doi.org/10.1177/469580211035727
Kostov, K. (2019). Effects of magnesium deficiency on mechanisms of insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes: Focusing on the processes of insulin secretion and signaling. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(6), 1351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20061351
Kurniawan, L. B. (2024). HbA1c as diabetes mellitus biomarker and its methods evolution. Indonesian Journal of Clinical Pathology and Medical Laboratory, 30(2), 191–196. https://doi.org/10.24293/ijcpml.v30i2.2191.
Liu, H., Xu, H., & Huang, K. (2017). Selenium in the prevention of atherosclerosis and its underlying mechanisms. Metallomics, 9(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6MT00195E
López‐Ridaura, R., Willett, W. C., Rimm, E. B., Liu, S., Stampfer, M. J., Manson, J. E., & Hu, F. B. (2004). Magnesium intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in men and women. Diabetes Care, 27(1), 134–140. https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.27.1.134
Luo, X., Zhang, W., He, Z., Zhang, J., Wu, J., & Ma, A. (2022). Dietary Vitamin C Intake Is Associated With Improved Liver Function and Glucose Metabolism in Chinese Adults. Frontiers in Nutrition, 8, 779912. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.779912
McClure, S. T., Schlechter, H., Oh, S., White, K., Wu, B., Pilla, S. J., Maruthur, N. M., Yeh, H. C., Miller, E. R., & Appel, L. J. (2020). Dietary intake of adults with and without diabetes: results from NHANES 2013-2016. BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care, 8(1), e001681. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjdrc-2020-001681
Ming, L., Wang, D., & Zhu, Y. (2023). Association of sodium intake with diabetes in adults without hypertension: Evidence from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009–2018. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1118364. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1118364
O'Keeffe, D. T., & Maraka, S. (2018). Hemoglobin A1c targets for glycemic control with pharmacologic therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine, 169(7), 510–511. https://doi.org/10.7326/L18-0369
Qaseem, A., Wilt, T. J., Kansagara, D., Horwitch, C., Barry, M. J., & Forciea, M. A. (2018). Hemoglobin A1c targets for glycemic control with pharmacologic therapy for nonpregnant adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A guidance statement update from the American College of Physicians. Annals of Internal Medicine, 168(8), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.7326/M17-0939
Raval, D. Hemoglobin A 1 C : biomarker for diabetes prediction ?
Schwingshackl, L., Chaimani, A., Hoffmann, G., Schwedhelm, C., & Boeing, H. (2018). A network meta-analysis on the comparative efficacy of different dietary approaches on glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. European Journal of Epidemiology, 33, 157–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-017-0352-x
Sherwani, S. I., Khan, H. A., Ekhzaimy, A. A., Masood, A., & Sakharkar, M. K. (2016). Significance of HbA1c test in diagnosis and prognosis of diabetic patients. Biomarker Insights, 11, 95–104. https://doi.org/10.4137/BMI.S38440
Soliman, N., Almishal, R., Elsayed, B., Ahmed, A., Al-Amri, S., Al-Kuwari, A., Al-Muhannadi, S., Nadeer, M., & Chivese, T. (2023). Association between diabetes and levels of micronutrients in Qatar: A case-control study. Biomedicines, 11(11), 3045. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11113045
Stolar, M. (2010). Glycemic control and complications in type 2 diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Medicine, 123(3 Suppl), S3–S11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2009.12.004
Suckling, R. J., He, F. J., Markandu, N. D., & MacGregor, G. A. (2016). Modest salt reduction lowers blood pressure and albumin excretion in impaired glucose tolerance and type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized double-blind trial. Hypertension, 67(6), 1189–1195. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.06637
Sun, H., Saeedi, P., Karuranga, S., Pinkepank, M., Ogurtsova, K., Duncan, B. B., … IDF Diabetes Atlas Consortium. (2022). IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global, regional and country-level diabetes prevalence estimates for 2021 and projections for 2045. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 183, 109119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2021.109119
Teufel F , Seiglie JA, Geldsetzer P, Marcus ME, Ebert C, Andres W, et al. Body mass index and diabetes risk in fifty-seven low- and middle-income countries: a cross-sectional study of nationally representative individual-level data. Lancet. 2022;398(10296):238–48.
Valk , Harold W. de. “Magnesium in diabetes mellitus *.” (1999).
Wei, J., Zeng, C., Gong, Q. Y., Yang, H. B., Li, X. X., Lei, G. H., & Yang, T. B. (2015). The association between dietary selenium intake and diabetes: A cross-sectional study among middle-aged and older adults. Nutrition Journal, 14, 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-015-0007-2
Yahya, M., Alneami, C. L., & Coleman, C. L. (2015). Risk factors for and barriers to control type-2 diabetes among Saudi population. Global Journal of Health Science, 8(9), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v8n9p10
Al-Adwi, M. E., Al-Haswsa, Z. M., Alhmmadi, K. M., Eissa, Y. A., Hamdan, A., Bawadi, H., & Tayyem, R. F. (2022). Effects of different diets on glycemic control among patients with type 2 diabetes: A literature review. Nutrition and Health, 29(2), 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/02601060221112805
Ali, S. N., Dang-Tan, T., Valentine, W. J., & Hansen, B. B. (2020). Evaluation of the clinical and economic burden of poor glycemic control associated with therapeutic inertia in patients with type 2 diabetes in the United States. Advances in Therapy, 37(2), 869–882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12325-019-01199-8
Alquaiz, A. M., Alrasheed, A. A., Kazi, A., Batais, M. A., Alhabeeb, K. M., Jamal, A. A., & Fouda, M. A. (2021). Is 25-hydroxyvitamin D associated with glycosylated hemoglobin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in Saudi Arabia? A population based study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6), 2805. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062805
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. (2024). 9. Pharmacologic approaches to glycemic treatment: Standards of care in diabetes—2024 [Published correction appears in Diabetes Care, 47(7), 1238. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc24-er07a]. Diabetes Care, 47(Suppl 1), S158–S178. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc24-S009
Bain, S. C., Bekker Hansen, B., Hunt, B., Chubb, B., & Valentine, W. J. (2020). Evaluating the burden of poor glycemic control associated with therapeutic inertia in patients with type 2 diabetes in the UK. Journal of Medical Economics, 23(1), 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/13696998.2019.1645018
Borgharkar, S. S., & Das, S. S. (2019). Real-world evidence of glycemic control among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in India: The TIGHT study. BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care, 7(1), e000654. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjdrc-2019-000654
Dong, J. Y., Xun, P., He, K., & Qin, L. Q. (2011). Magnesium intake and risk of type 2 diabetes: Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Diabetes Care, 34(9), 2116–2122. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc11-0518
Eshak, E. S., Muraki, I., Imano, H., Yamagishi, K., Tamakoshi, A., & Iso, H. (2021). Manganese intake from foods and beverages is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. Maturitas, 143, 127–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.10.009
Farid, S. M. (2013). Trace mineral status related to levels of glycated hemoglobin of type 2 diabetic subjects in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Medical Journal of the Islamic World Academy of Sciences, 21(2), 47–56.
Gogna, N., Krishna, M., Oommen, A. M., & Dorai, K. (2015). Investigating correlations in the altered metabolic profiles of obese and diabetic subjects in a South Indian Asian population using an NMR-based metabolomic approach. Molecular BioSystems, 11(2), 595–606. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4mb00507d
Horikawa, C., Takahara, M., Katakami, N., Takeda, Y., Takeuchi, M., Fujihara, K., Suzuki, H., Yoshioka, N., Shimano, H., Satoh, J., Hayashino, Y., Tajima, N., Nishimura, R., Yamasaki, Y., & Sone, H. (2025). Dietary potassium intake and its interaction with sodium intake on risk of developing cardiovascular disease in persons with type 2 diabetes: The Japan Diabetes Complication and its Prevention Prospective study (JDCP study 12). Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism, 27(1), 394–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.16035
Huang, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhou, C., et al. (2024). Association of dietary manganese intake with new-onset chronic kidney disease in participants with diabetes. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome, 18(10), 103138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2024.103138
Jarrar, M., Abusalah, M. A., Albaker, W., Al-Bsheish, M., Alsyouf, A., Al-Mugheed, K., Issa, M. R., & Alumran, A. (2023). Prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in the general population of Saudi Arabia, 2000–2020: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Saudi Journal of Medicine & Medical Sciences, 11, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.4103/sjmms.sjmms_394_22
Karalis, D. T. (2019). The beneficiary role of selenium in type II diabetes: A longitudinal study. Cureus, 11(12), e6443. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.6443
Kheriji, N., Boukhalfa, W., Mahjoub, F., et al. (2022). The role of dietary intake in type 2 diabetes mellitus: Importance of macro and micronutrients in glucose homeostasis. Nutrients, 14(10), 2132. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14102132
Kim, Y. M., Kim, J. D., & Jung, H. (2021). A cross-sectional study of the effects of physical activity and nutrient intakes on blood glucose control rates in middle-aged and elderly diabetes patients: Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2015–2017. Inquiry: A Journal of Medical Care Organization, Provision and Financing, 58, 469580211035727. https://doi.org/10.1177/469580211035727
Kostov, K. (2019). Effects of magnesium deficiency on mechanisms of insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes: Focusing on the processes of insulin secretion and signaling. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(6), 1351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20061351
Kurniawan, L. B. (2024). HbA1c as diabetes mellitus biomarker and its methods evolution. Indonesian Journal of Clinical Pathology and Medical Laboratory, 30(2), 191–196. https://doi.org/10.24293/ijcpml.v30i2.2191.
Liu, H., Xu, H., & Huang, K. (2017). Selenium in the prevention of atherosclerosis and its underlying mechanisms. Metallomics, 9(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6MT00195E
López‐Ridaura, R., Willett, W. C., Rimm, E. B., Liu, S., Stampfer, M. J., Manson, J. E., & Hu, F. B. (2004). Magnesium intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in men and women. Diabetes Care, 27(1), 134–140. https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.27.1.134
Luo, X., Zhang, W., He, Z., Zhang, J., Wu, J., & Ma, A. (2022). Dietary Vitamin C Intake Is Associated With Improved Liver Function and Glucose Metabolism in Chinese Adults. Frontiers in Nutrition, 8, 779912. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.779912
McClure, S. T., Schlechter, H., Oh, S., White, K., Wu, B., Pilla, S. J., Maruthur, N. M., Yeh, H. C., Miller, E. R., & Appel, L. J. (2020). Dietary intake of adults with and without diabetes: results from NHANES 2013-2016. BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care, 8(1), e001681. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjdrc-2020-001681
Ming, L., Wang, D., & Zhu, Y. (2023). Association of sodium intake with diabetes in adults without hypertension: Evidence from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009–2018. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1118364. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1118364
O'Keeffe, D. T., & Maraka, S. (2018). Hemoglobin A1c targets for glycemic control with pharmacologic therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine, 169(7), 510–511. https://doi.org/10.7326/L18-0369
Qaseem, A., Wilt, T. J., Kansagara, D., Horwitch, C., Barry, M. J., & Forciea, M. A. (2018). Hemoglobin A1c targets for glycemic control with pharmacologic therapy for nonpregnant adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A guidance statement update from the American College of Physicians. Annals of Internal Medicine, 168(8), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.7326/M17-0939
Raval, D. Hemoglobin A 1 C : biomarker for diabetes prediction ?
Schwingshackl, L., Chaimani, A., Hoffmann, G., Schwedhelm, C., & Boeing, H. (2018). A network meta-analysis on the comparative efficacy of different dietary approaches on glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. European Journal of Epidemiology, 33, 157–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-017-0352-x
Sherwani, S. I., Khan, H. A., Ekhzaimy, A. A., Masood, A., & Sakharkar, M. K. (2016). Significance of HbA1c test in diagnosis and prognosis of diabetic patients. Biomarker Insights, 11, 95–104. https://doi.org/10.4137/BMI.S38440
Soliman, N., Almishal, R., Elsayed, B., Ahmed, A., Al-Amri, S., Al-Kuwari, A., Al-Muhannadi, S., Nadeer, M., & Chivese, T. (2023). Association between diabetes and levels of micronutrients in Qatar: A case-control study. Biomedicines, 11(11), 3045. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11113045
Stolar, M. (2010). Glycemic control and complications in type 2 diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Medicine, 123(3 Suppl), S3–S11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2009.12.004
Suckling, R. J., He, F. J., Markandu, N. D., & MacGregor, G. A. (2016). Modest salt reduction lowers blood pressure and albumin excretion in impaired glucose tolerance and type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized double-blind trial. Hypertension, 67(6), 1189–1195. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.06637
Sun, H., Saeedi, P., Karuranga, S., Pinkepank, M., Ogurtsova, K., Duncan, B. B., … IDF Diabetes Atlas Consortium. (2022). IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global, regional and country-level diabetes prevalence estimates for 2021 and projections for 2045. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 183, 109119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2021.109119
Teufel F , Seiglie JA, Geldsetzer P, Marcus ME, Ebert C, Andres W, et al. Body mass index and diabetes risk in fifty-seven low- and middle-income countries: a cross-sectional study of nationally representative individual-level data. Lancet. 2022;398(10296):238–48.
Valk , Harold W. de. “Magnesium in diabetes mellitus *.” (1999).
Wei, J., Zeng, C., Gong, Q. Y., Yang, H. B., Li, X. X., Lei, G. H., & Yang, T. B. (2015). The association between dietary selenium intake and diabetes: A cross-sectional study among middle-aged and older adults. Nutrition Journal, 14, 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-015-0007-2
Yahya, M., Alneami, C. L., & Coleman, C. L. (2015). Risk factors for and barriers to control type-2 diabetes among Saudi population. Global Journal of Health Science, 8(9), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v8n9p10
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Alarifi, S., H. Alhussain , M. ., & A. Abd EL-Rahman, R. . (2025). Micronutrient intake and HbA1c in Saudi Arabian patients with type 2 diabetes:: a cross-sectional analysis. Italian Journal of Food Science, 37(4), 269-278. https://doi.org/15586/ijfs.v37i4.3145
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Alarifi, S., H. Alhussain , M. ., & A. Abd EL-Rahman, R. . (2025). Micronutrient intake and HbA1c in Saudi Arabian patients with type 2 diabetes:: a cross-sectional analysis. Italian Journal of Food Science, 37(4), 269-278. https://doi.org/15586/ijfs.v37i4.3145