The effects of different vegetable oils and gelation techniques (hot vs. cold) on pea protein emulsion gel properties as fat replacers
Main Article Content
Keywords
Fat substitute, Gelling properties, Meat product, Oil type, Protein-based fat replacer
Abstract
A fat replacer mimics the properties of fat in foods, offering a healthier option that reduces calories and fat while maintaining good texture and flavor. This work aimed to produce pea protein emulsion gel (PPEG) using pea protein isolate with different oils (olive oil, sunflower oil, or canola oil) and gelation techniques (hot or cold), with beef fat (BF) as the control. The nutritional, physicochemical, and microstructural properties of the PPEG were evaluated. The type of oil and gelation technique did not affect the proximate composition, color, or water-holding capacity of PPEG (p>0.05). None of the PPEGs showed differences in oil-binding capacity compared to BF. Hot-prepared PPEG has a lower pH and smaller particle size, resulting in significantly higher hardness and gel strength (p<0.05). The use of sunflower oil enhances the springiness, chewiness, and cohesiveness of PPEG significantly (p<0.05). The cold gelation technique may preserve more polyunsaturated fatty acids than the hot gelation technique. Principal component analysis (PCA) results indicate that PPEG prepared from sunflower oil using the hot gelation technique has properties closest to those of BF, particularly in terms of high values of springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness. Its hardness and gel strength are significantly lower than those of BF; however, it possesses the strongest gel network among all PPEGs. In conclusion, the use of sunflower oil and the hot gelation technique can produce an emulsion gel with the best properties for use as a fat replacer.
References
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Yang, J., Zamani, S., Liang, L., Chen, L. 2021. Extraction methods significantly impact pea protein composition, structure and gelling properties. Food Hydrocoll. 117: 106678. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106678
Yashini, M., Sunil, C.K., Sahana, S., Hemanth, S.D., Chidanand, D.V. 2019. Protein-based fat replacers—A review of recent advances protein-based fat replacers. Food Rev. Int. 9129: 1–27. 10.1080/87559129.2019.1701007
Zeng, L., Lee, J., Jo, Y.J., Choi, M.J. 2023. Effects of micro- and nano-sized emulsions on physicochemical properties of -emulsion–gelatin composite gels. Food Hydrocoll. 139. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.108537
Zhang, M., Yang, Y., Acevedo, N.C. 2020. Effect of oil content and composition on the gelling properties of egg-SPI proteins stabilized emulsion gels. Food Biophys. 15: 473–481. 10.1007/s11483-020-09646-8
Zou, Q., Zheng, Y., Liu, Y., Luo, L., Chen, Y., Ran, G., Liu, D. 2024. Preparation of cassia bean gum/soy protein isolate composite matrix emulsion gel and its effect on the stability of meat sausage. Gels. 10: 1–17.
Zou, Y., Thijssen, P.P., Yang, X., Scholten, E. 2019. The effect of oil type and solvent quality on the rheological behavior of zein stabilized oil-in-glycerol emulsion gels. Food Hydrocoll. 91: 57–65. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.01.016
Akta, N., and Kaya, M. 2001. Detection of beef body fat and margarine in butterfat by differential scanning calorimetry. J. of Thermal Anal. Calorim. 66: 795–801.
AOAC (2005). Official Methods of Analysis, 18th edn. Washington D.C.: Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
Asyrul-Izhar, A.B., Bakar, J., Sazili, A.Q., Goh, Y.M., Ismail-Fitry, M.R. 2023a. Emulsion gels formed by electrostatic interaction of gelatine and modified corn starch via pH adjustments: Potential fat replacers in meat products. Gels 9: 1–8. 10.3390/gels9010050
Asyrul-Izhar, A.B., Bakar, J., Sazili, A.Q., Meng, G.Y., Ismail-Fitry, M.R. 2023b. Incorporation of different physical forms of fat replacers in the production of low-fat/reduced-fat meat products: Which is more practical? Food Rev. Int. 39: 6387–6419. 10.1080/87559129.2022.2108439
Barthet, V.J. 2016. Canola: Overview, In: Reference Module in Food Sciences. pp. 1–5.
Boskou, D., Blekas, G., Tsimidou, M. 2006. Olive Oil Composition, In: Olive Oil. pp. 41–72.
Chandra, M. V, Shamasundar B.A. 2015. Texture Profile Analysis and Functional Properties of Gelatin from the Skin of Three Species of Fresh Water Fish Texture Profile Analysis and Functional Properties of Gelatin from the Skin of Three Species of Fresh Water Fish. Int. J. Food Prop. 18: 572–584. 10.1080/10942912.2013.845787
Chao, D., and Aluko, R.E. 2018. Modification of the structural, emulsifying, and foaming properties of an isolated pea protein by thermal pretreatment. CyTA-J. Food. 16: 357–366. 10.1080/19476337.2017.1406536
Dai, Y., Zhao, J., Gao, J., Deng, Q., Wan, C., Li, B., Zhou, B. 2021. Heat-and cold-induced gels of desalted duck egg white/gelatin mixed system: Study on rheological and gel properties. Food Hydrocoll. 121: 1–11. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107003
Devi, A., and Khatkar, B. 2017. Effects of fatty acids composition and microstructure properties of fats and oils on textural properties of dough and cookie quality. J. Food Sci. Technol. 55: 321–330. 10.1007/s13197-017-2942-8
Eyiler Yilmaz, E., Vural, H., Jafarzadeh Yadigari, R. 2017. Thermal, microscopic, and quality properties of low-fat frankfurters and emulsions produced by addition of different hydrocolloids. Int. J. Food Prop. 20: 1987–2002. 10.1080/10942912.2016.1230743
Farhoosh, R., and Pazhouhanmehr, S. 2009. Relative contribution of compositional parameters to the primary and secondary oxidation of canola oil. Food Chem. 114: 1002–1006. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.10.054
Gök, V., Akkaya, L., Obuz, E., Bulut, S. 2011. Effect of ground poppy seed as a fat replacer on meat burgers. Meat Sci. 89: 400–404. 10.1016/j.meatsci.2011.04.032
Guldiken, B., Saffon, M., Nickerson, M.T., Ghosh, S. 2023. Improving physical stability of pea protein-based emulsions near the isoelectric point via polysaccharide complexation. Food Hydrocoll. 145: 109029. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.109029
Han, Z., Xu, S., Sun, J., Yue, X., Wu, Z., Shao, J.H. 2021. Effects of fatty acid saturation degree on salt-soluble pork protein conformation and interfacial adsorption characteristics at the oil/water interface. Food Hydrocoll. 113. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106472
Hashemi, B., Assadpour, E., Zhang, F., Mahdi, S. 2023. A comparative study of the impacts of preparation techniques on the rheological and textural characteristics of emulsion gels (emulgels). Adv. Colloid. Interface Sci. 322: 103051. 10.1016/j.cis.2023.103051
Huang, L., Ren, Y., Li, H., Zhang, Q., Wang, Y., Cao, J., Liu, X. 2022. Create fat substitute from soybean protein isolate/konjac glucomannan: The impact of the protein and polysaccharide concentrations formulations. Front. Nutr. 9: 1–13. 10.3389/fnut.2022.843832
Kouzounis, D., Lazaridou, A., Katsanidis, E. 2017. Partial replacement of animal fat by oleogels structured with monoglycerides and phytosterols in frankfurter sausages. Meat Sci. 130: 38–46.
Li, K., Wang, L.M., Cui, B.B., Chen, B., Zhao, D.B., Bai, Y.H. 2024a. Effect of vegetable oils on the thermal gel properties of PSE-like chicken breast meat protein isolate-based emulsion gels. Food Chem. 447. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.138904
Li, S., Chen, G., Shi, X., Ma, C., Liu, F. 2022. Comparative study of heat-and enzyme-induced emulsion gels formed by gelatin and whey protein isolate: Physical properties and formation mechanism. Gels. 8. 10.3390/gels8040212
Li, X., Chen, X., Cheng, H. 2024b. Impact of κ-carrageenan on the cold-set pea protein isolate emulsion-filled gels: Mechanical property, microstructure, and in vitro digestive behavior. Foods. 13. 10.3390/foods13030483
Liang, X., Ma, C., Yan, X., Zeng, H., McClements, D.J., Liu, X., Liu, F. 2020. Structure, rheology and functionality of whey protein emulsion gels: Effects of double cross-linking with transglutaminase and calcium ions. Food Hydrocoll. 102. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105569
Lin, D., Kelly, A.L., Miao, S. 2020. Preparation, structure--property relationships and applications of different emulsion gels: Bulk emulsion gels, emulsion gel particles, and fluid emulsion gels. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 102: 123–137. 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.05.024
Lu, Z.X., He, J.F., Zhang, Y.C., Bing, D.J. 2019. Composition, physicochemical properties of pea protein and its application in functional foods. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 8398. 10.1080/10408398.2019.1651248
Ma, Y., and Chen, F. 2023. Plant protein heat-induced gels: Formation mechanisms and regulatory strategies. Coatings. 13: 1–19.
Nourmohammadi, N., Austin, L., Chen, D. 2023. Protein-based fat replacers: A focus on fabrication methods and fat-mimic mechanisms. Foods. 12: 1–17. 10.3390/foods12050957
Öztürk-Kerimoğlu, B., Kavuşan, H.S., Benzer Gürel, D., Çağındı, Ö., Serdaroğlu, M., 2021. Cold-set or hot-set emulsion gels consisted of a healthy oil blend to replace beef fat in heat-treated fermented sausages. Meat Sci. 176. 10.1016/j.meatsci.2021.108461
Pintado, T., and Cofrades, S. 2020. Quality characteristics of healthy dry fermented sausages formulated with a mixture of olive and chia oil structured in oleogel or emulsion gel as animal fat replacer. Foods. 9. 10.3390/foods9060830
Pintado, T., Ruiz-Capillas, C., Jiménez-Colmenero, F., Carmona, P., Herrero, A.M. 2015. Oil-in-water emulsion gels stabilized with chia (Salvia hispanica L.) and cold gelling agents: Technological and infrared spectroscopic characterization. Food Chem. 185: 470–478. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.04.024
Qiao, X., Liu, F., Kong, Z., Yang, Z., Dai, L., Wang, Y., Sun, Q., McClements, D.J., Xu, X. 2023. Pickering emulsion gel stabilized by pea protein nanoparticle induced by heat-assisted pH-shifting for curcumin delivery. J. Food Eng. 350. 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2023.111504
Ren, Y., Huang, L., Zhang, Y., Li, H., Zhao, D., Cao, J., Liu, X. 2022. Application of emulsion gels as fat substitutes in meat products. Foods. 11: 75–93. 10.1007/978-1-4419-9374-8_8
Schumacher, T., Steinmacher, T., Koster, E., Wagemans, A., Weiss, J., Gibis, M. 2025. Physico-chemical characterization of ten commercial pea protein isolates. Food Hydrocolloids. 162. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2024.110996
Seddiek, A.S., Chen, K., Zhou, F., Esther, M.M., Elbarbary, A., Golshany, H., Uriho, A., Liang, L. 2025. Whey protein hydrogels and emulsion gels with anthocyanins and/or goji oil: Formation, characterization and in vitro digestion behavior. Antioxidants. 14. 10.3390/antiox14010060
Serdaroǧlu, M., Nacak, B., Karabiyikoǧlu, M. 2017. Effects of beef fat replacement with gelled emulsion prepared with olive oil on quality parameters of chicken patties. Korean J. Food Sci. Anim. Resour. 37: 376–384. 10.5851/kosfa.2017.37.3.376
Totaro, M.P., Summo, C., Miccolis, M., Faccia, M., Angelis, D. De, Natrella, G., Caponio, F. 2025. Optimization of the rheological properties of fat replacers based on inulin at different degrees of polymerization and their application in beef burgers. Foods. 14.
Utama, D.T., Jeong, H., Kim, J., Lee, S.K. 2018. Formula optimization of a perilla-canola Oil (O/W) emulsion and its potential application as an animal fat replacer in meat emulsion. Korean J. Food Sci. Anim. Resour. 38: 580–593.
Wahab, N.Q.A., Pangestika, L.M.W., Ismail-Fitry, M.R. 2024. Partial incorporation of black jelly mushroom (Auricularia polytricha) as a plant-based ingredient in the production of hybrid patties using meat from different species. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 1–10. 10.1111/ijfs.17516
Wang, L., Wen, Y., Su, C., Gao, Y., Li, Q., Du, S., Yu, X. 2022. Effect of water content on the physical properties and structure of walnut oleogels. RSC Adv. 12: 8987–8995. 10.1039/d2ra00920j
Xu, Q., Qi, B., Han, L., Wang, D., Zhang, S., Jiang, L., Xie, F., Li, Y. 2021. Study on the gel properties, interactions, and pH stability of pea protein isolate emulsion gels as influenced by inulin. LWT– Food Sci. Technol. 137.
Xu, Y., Sun, L., Zhuang, Y., Gu, Y., Cheng, G., Fan, X., Ding, Y., Liu, H. 2023. Protein-stabilized emulsion gels with improved emulsifying and gelling properties for the delivery of bioactive ingredients: A review. Foods. 12. 10.3390/foods12142703
Yang, J., Zamani, S., Liang, L., Chen, L. 2021. Extraction methods significantly impact pea protein composition, structure and gelling properties. Food Hydrocoll. 117: 106678. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106678
Yashini, M., Sunil, C.K., Sahana, S., Hemanth, S.D., Chidanand, D.V. 2019. Protein-based fat replacers—A review of recent advances protein-based fat replacers. Food Rev. Int. 9129: 1–27. 10.1080/87559129.2019.1701007
Zeng, L., Lee, J., Jo, Y.J., Choi, M.J. 2023. Effects of micro- and nano-sized emulsions on physicochemical properties of -emulsion–gelatin composite gels. Food Hydrocoll. 139. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.108537
Zhang, M., Yang, Y., Acevedo, N.C. 2020. Effect of oil content and composition on the gelling properties of egg-SPI proteins stabilized emulsion gels. Food Biophys. 15: 473–481. 10.1007/s11483-020-09646-8
Zou, Q., Zheng, Y., Liu, Y., Luo, L., Chen, Y., Ran, G., Liu, D. 2024. Preparation of cassia bean gum/soy protein isolate composite matrix emulsion gel and its effect on the stability of meat sausage. Gels. 10: 1–17.
Zou, Y., Thijssen, P.P., Yang, X., Scholten, E. 2019. The effect of oil type and solvent quality on the rheological behavior of zein stabilized oil-in-glycerol emulsion gels. Food Hydrocoll. 91: 57–65. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.01.016
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Widya Pangestika, L. M., Hossain Brishti, F., Mohamad Azman, E., Saari, N., Du, L., Pan, D., & Rashedi Ismail-Fitry, M. (2026). The effects of different vegetable oils and gelation techniques (hot vs. cold) on pea protein emulsion gel properties as fat replacers. Italian Journal of Food Science, 38(2), 163-177. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v38i2.3402
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How to Cite
Widya Pangestika, L. M., Hossain Brishti, F., Mohamad Azman, E., Saari, N., Du, L., Pan, D., & Rashedi Ismail-Fitry, M. (2026). The effects of different vegetable oils and gelation techniques (hot vs. cold) on pea protein emulsion gel properties as fat replacers. Italian Journal of Food Science, 38(2), 163-177. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v38i2.3402