Impact of simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on phenolic compounds and the antioxident potential of olive pomace
Main Article Content
Keywords
antioxidant activity, bioaccessibility, olive pomace, phenolics, stability
Abstract
The study’s aim was to investigate the impact of laboratory-imitated digestion, including mouth, gastric, and intestinal phases of olive pomace on the stability, bioaccessibility, and recovery of phenolic compounds as well as antioxidant ability. The total flavonoid content (TFC) and total polyphenol content (TPC) were extracted using water or 50% and 100% methanol, ethanol, and acetone. The digested mixture after each phase of digestion was centrifuged and used to assess recovery, bioaccessibility, and polyphenolic stability. Compared to other solvents, 100% methanol and ethanol extracts showed the highest values of TPC, TFC, half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) IC50. The recovery rates of TPC, TFC, DPPH IC50, and ABTS IC50 decreased in a descending order during the gastrointestinal phases as follows: mouth > stomach > intestines. After gastric (27.20%) and intestinal (26.79%) phases, the TPC bioaccessibility index in olive pomace increased significantly, which was statistically similar to the oral phase (21.20%). For TFC, the bioaccessibility rate did not change significantly after mouth and intestinal phases. There were no significant differences in flavonoids and antioxidant scavenging activities among the three phases of digestion. The pellet fractions had higher phenolic levels and better free radical scavenging activity in all phases of digestion than chyme-soluble fractions. TPC or TFC had a significant and positive relationship with Pearson correlation coefficient (r = 0.891–0.994) with DPPH and ABTS scavenging rates in oral, gastric, and intestinal digestion phases. Overall, our research could pave way for the industrial application of olive pomace waste as a possible food ingredient to generate functional foods with beneficial health effects.
References
Adams, R. P. 2017. Identification of essential oil components by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. 5 online ed. Gruver, TX USA: Texensis Publishing.
Ahuja, V., Macho M., Ewe D., Singh M., Saha S., and Saurav K. 2020. Biological and pharmacological potential of xylitol: a molec-ular insight of unique metabolism. Foods. 9: 1592. 10.3390/foods9111592
Al-Farsi, M.A., and Lee C.Y. 2008. Optimization of phenolics and dietary fibre extraction from date seeds. Food Chem. 108: 977–985. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.12.009
Ali, A., Chua B.L., and Chow Y.H. 2019. An insight into the extraction and fractionation technologies of the essential oils and bioactive compounds in Rosmarinus officinalis L.: past, present and future. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 118: 338–351.
Alshammari, H.H., and Shahin O.R. 2022. An efficient deep learn-ing mechanism for the recognition of olive trees in Jouf region. Comp Intel Neurosci. 10.1155/2022/9249530
Andersen A. 2006. Amended final report of the safety assessment of dibutyl adipate as used in cosmetics. Int J Toxicol. 25: 129–134. 10.1080/10915810600716679
Andrade J.K.S., Barros R.G.C., Pereira U.C., Nogueira, J.P, Gualberto N.C., de Oliveira C.S., Shanmugam S., and Narain N. 2022. Bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds after in vitro gas-trointestinal digestion and probiotics fermentation of Brazilian fruits residues with antioxidant and antidiabetic potential. LWT. 153: 112469. 10.1002/jsfa.8143
Banias G., Achillas C., Vlachokostas C., Moussiopoulos N., and Stefanou M. 2017. Environmental impacts in the life cycle of olive oil: a literature review. J Sci Food Agricul. 97: 1686–1697. 10.1002/jsfa.8143
Bao L., Sun H., Zhao Y., Feng L., Wu K., Shang S., et al. 2023. Hexadecanamide alleviates Staphylococcus aureus-induced mastitis in mice by inhibiting inflammatory responses and restoring blood–milk barrier integrity. PLoS Pathogens. 19: e1011764. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011764
Belyagoubi L., Belyagoubi-Benhammou N., Atik-Bekkara F., and Coustard J. 2016. Effects of extraction solvents on phenolic con-tent and antioxidant properties of Pistacia atlantica Desf fruits from Algeria. Int Food Res J. 23(3): 948–953.
Bouayed J., Hoffmann L., and Bohn T. 2011. Total phenolics, flavo- noids, anthocyanins and antioxidant activity following simu- lated gastro-intestinal digestion and dialysis of apple varieties: Bioaccessibility and potential uptake. Food Chem. 128: 14–21. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.02.052
Bucciantini M., Leri M., Nardiello P., Casamenti F., and Stefani M. 2021. Olive polyphenols: antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Antioxidants. 10: 1044. 10.3390/antiox10071044
Carbonell-Capella J.M., Buniowska M., Esteve M.J., and Frigola A. 2015. Effect of Stevia rebaudiana addition on bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of beverages based on exotic fruits mixed with oat following simulated human digestion. Food Chem. 184: 122–130. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.095
Chandrasekhar V., Boomishankar R., and Nagendran S. 2004. Recent developments in the synthesis and structure of organosilanols. Chem Rev. 104: 5847–5910. 10.1021/cr0306135
Chang ShangTzen C.S., Wu W.J., JyhHorng W.S., Wang Sheng Yang K.P., Kang Pei Ling Y.N., Yang NingSun and Shyur S.L. LieFen. 2001. Antioxidant activity of extracts from Acacia con-fusa bark and heartwood. J Agric Food Chem. 49(7): 3420–3424. 10.1021/jf0100907
Chen G.L., Chen S.G., Zhao Y.Y., Luo C.X., Li J., and Gao Y.Q. 2014. Total phenolic contents of 33 fruits and their antioxidant capac-ities before and after in vitro digestion. Indus Crops Prod. 57: 150–157.
Cianciosi D., Forbes-Hernández T.Y., Regolo L., Alvarez-Suarez J.M., Navarro-Hortal M.D., Xiao J., et al. 2022. The reciprocal interac-tion between polyphenols and other dietary compounds: impact on bioavailability, antioxidant capacity and other physico-chemical and nutritional parameters. Food Chem. 375: 13190. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131904
Dima C., Assadpour E., Dima S., and Jafari S.M. 2020. Bioavailability of nutraceuticals: role of the food matrix, processing condi-tions, the gastrointestinal tract, and nanodelivery systems. Comp Rev Food Sci Food Safety. 19: 954–994. 10.1111/1541-4337.12547
El Mihyaoui A., Charfi S., Erbiai E.H., Pereira M., Duarte D., Vale N., et al. 2022. Phytochemical compounds and anticancer activ-ity of Cladanthus mixtus extracts from Northern Morocco. Cancers. 15: 152. 10.3390/cancers15010152
Farrell E.K and Merkler. 2008. Biosynthesis, degradation and pharmacological importance of the fatty acid amides. Drug Discovery Today. 13: 558–568. 10.1016/j.drudis.2008.02.006
Galanakis C.M. 2012. Recovery of high added-value components from food wastes: conventional, emerging technologies and commercialized applications. Trends Food Sci Technol. 26: 68–87. 10.1016/j.tifs.2012.03.003
Gong L., Chi J., Zhang Y., Wang J., and Sun B. 2019. In vitro evalu-ation of the bioaccessibility of phenolic acids in different whole wheats as potential prebiotics. LWT. 100: 435–443. 10.1016/j.lwt.2018.10.071
González-Aguilar G.A., Blancas-Benítez F.J., and Sáyago-Ayerdi S.G. 2017. Polyphenols associated with dietary fibers in plant foods: molecular interactions and bioaccessibility. Curr Opinion Food Sci. 13: 84–88. 10.1016/j.cofs.2017.03.004
Gullon B., Pintado M.E., Fernández-López J., Pérez-Álvarez J.A., and Viuda-Martos M. 2015. In vitro gastrointestinal digestion of pomegranate peel (Punica granatum) flour obtained from co-products: changes in the antioxidant potential and bioactive compounds stability. J Funct Foods. 19: 617–628. 10.1016/j.jff.2015.09.056
Gunathilake, K., Ranaweera K., and Rupasinghe H. 2018. Change of phenolics, carotenoids, and antioxidant capacity following simulated gastrointestinal digestion and dialysis of selected edible green leaves. Food Chem. 245: 371–379. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.10.096
Hadi M.Y., Mohammed G.J., and Hameed I.H. 2016. Analysis of bioactive chemical compounds of Nigella sativa using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Pharmacog Phytother. 8: 8–24. 10.5897/JPP2015.0364
Hagos M., Chandravanshi B.S., Redi-Abshiro M., and Yaya E.E. 2023. Determination of total phenolic, total flavonoid, ascorbic acid contents and antioxidant activity of pumpkin flesh, peel and seeds. Bull Chem Soc Ethiopia. 37: 1093–1108. 10.4314/bcse.v37i5.3
Helal A., and Tagliazucchi D. 2018. Impact of in-vitro gastro-pancreatic digestion on polyphenols and cinnamaldehyde bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity in stirred cinnamon-for-tified yogurt. LWT. 89: 164–170. 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.10.047
Huang X., Cai W., and Xu B. 2014. Kinetic changes of nutrients and antioxidant capacities of germinated soybean (Glycine max L.) and mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) with germination time. Food Chem. 143: 268–276. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.07.080
Jakobek L., and Matić P. 2019. Non-covalent dietary fiber-polyphenol interactions and their influence on polyphenol bio-accessibility. Trends Food Sci Technol. 83: 235–247. 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.11.024
Ketnawa S., Reginio F.C. Jr, Thuengtung S., and Ogawa Y. 2022. Changes in bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of plant-based foods by gastrointestinal digestion: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 62: 4684–4705. 10.1080/10408398.2021.1878100
Kim Y.M., Farrah S., and Baney R.H. 2006. Silanol–a novel class of antimicrobial agent. Elect J Biotechnol. 9(2): 176–180. 10.2225/vol9-issue2-fulltext-4
Kim D.O., Jeong S.W., and Lee C.Y. 2003. Antioxidant capacity of phe-nolic phytochemicals from various cultivars of plums. Food Chem. 81: 321–326. 10.1016/S0308-8146(02)00423-5
Kriaa W., Fetoui H., Makni M., Zeghal N., and Drira N.E. 2012. Phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) leaves. Int J Food Prop. 15: 1220–1232. 10.1080/10942912.2010.514673
Krishnamoorthy K., and Subramaniam P. 2014. Phytochemical profiling of leaf, stem, and tuber parts of Solena amplexicau-lis (Lam.) Gandhi using GC-MS. Int Schol Res Notices. 2014. 10.1155/2014/567409
Lai W.T., Khong N.M., Lim S.S., Hee Y.Y., Sim B.I., Lau K.Y., et al. 2017. A review: modified agricultural by-products for the devel-opment and fortification of food products and nutraceuticals. Trends Food Sci Technol. 59: 148–160. 10.1016/j.tifs.2016.11.014
Li M., Bai Q., Zhou J., de Souza T.S.P., and Suleria H.A.R. 2022. In vitro gastrointestinal bioaccessibility, bioactivities and colon-icfermentation of phenolic compounds in different vigna beans. Foods. 11: 3884. 10.3390/foods11233884
Lopez S., Bermudez B., Montserrat-de la Paz S., Pacheco Y.M., Ortega-Gomez A., Varela L.M., et al. 2021.Oleic acid—the main component of olive oil on postprandial metabolic processes. In: Olives and olive oil in health and disease prevention. Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 639–649.
Lu Q., Liu T., Wang N., Dou Z., Wang K., and Zuo Y. 2020. Nematicidal effect of methyl palmitate and methyl stearate against Meloidogyne incognita in bananas. J Agric Food Chem. 68(24): 6502–6510. 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00218
Ma Y., Zhou M., and Huang H. 2014. Changes of heat-treated soy-milks in bioactive compounds and their antioxidant activities under in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. Eur Food Res Technol. 239: 637–652. 10.1007/s00217-014-2260-6
Maduwanthi S., and Marapana R. 2021. Total phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidant activity following simulated gastro-intestinal digestion and dialysis of banana (Musa acuminata, AAB) as affected by induced ripening agents. Food Chem. 339: 127909. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127909
Mahadkar S., Valvi S., and Jadhav V. 2013. Gas chromatography mass spectroscopic (GCMS) analysis of some bioactive compounds form five medicinally relevant wild edible plants. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 6: 136–139.
Malapert A., Reboul E., Loonis M., Dangles O., and Tomao V. 2018. Direct and rapid profiling of biophenols in olive pomace by UHPLC-DAD-MS. Food Analy Methods.11: 1001–1010. 10.1007/s12161-017-1064-2
McLafferty F.W., Stauffer D.B., Stenhagen E., and Heller S.R. 1989. The Wiley/NBS registry of mass spectral data. Wiley Analytical Science. Wiley-VCH GmbH, Weinheim, Germany.
Mensink, R.P., and Organization W.H. 2016. Effects of saturated fatty acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins: a systematic review and regression analysis. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Mili S., and Bouhaddane M. 2021. Forecasting global developments and challenges in olive oil supply and demand: a delphi sur-vey from Spain. Agriculture. 11: 191. 10.3390/agriculture11030191
Mohammed E.A., Abdalla I.G., Alfawaz M.A., Mohammed M.A., Al Maiman S.A., Osman M.A., et al. 2022. Effects of extraction sol-vents on the total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity in the aerial part of root vegetables. Agriculture. 12: 1820. 10.3390/agriculture12111820
Moreno-Maroto J.M., Uceda-Rodríguez M., Cobo-Ceacero C.J., de Hoces M.C., MartínLara M.Á., Cotes-Palomino T., et al. 2019. Recycling of ‘alperujo’(olive pomace) as a key component in the sintering of lightweight aggregates. J Clean Prod. 239: 118041. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118041
Mrabet A., Hammadi H., Rodríguez-Gutiérrez G., Jimenez-Araujo A., and Sindic M. 2019. Date palm fruits as a potential source of functional dietary fiber: a review. Food Sci Technol Res. 25: 1–10. 10.3136/fstr.25.1
Nunes M.A., Costa A.S., Bessada S., Santos J., Puga H., Alves R.C., et al. 2018. Olive pomace as a valuable source of bioactive compounds: A study regarding its lipid-and water-soluble components. Sci Total Environ. 644: 229–236. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.350
Nunes A., Gonçalves L., Marto J., Martins A.M., Silva A.N., Pinto P., et al. 2021. Investigations of olive oil industry by-products extracts with potential skin benefits in topical formulations. Pharmaceutics. 13: 465. 10.3390/pharmaceutics13040465
Ortega N., Macià A., Romero M.P., Reguant J., and Motilva M.J. 2011. Matrix composition effect on the digestibility of carob flour phenols by an in-vitro digestion model. Food Chem. 124: 65–71. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.05.105
Osama A., Awadelkarim S., and Ali A. 2017. Antioxidant activity, acetylcholinesterase inhibitory potential and phytochemical analysis of sarcocephalus latifolius Sm. bark used in traditional medicine in Sudan. BMC Comp Alt Med. 17: 1–10. 10.1186/s12906-017-1772-6
Padayachee A., Day L., Howell K., and Gidley M. 2017. Complexity and health functionality of plant cell wall fibers from fruits and vegetables. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 57: 59–81. 10.1080/10408398.2013.850652
Phan A.D.T., Flanagan B.M., D’Arcy B.R., and Gidley M.J. 2017. Binding selectivity of dietary polyphenols to different plant cell wall components: quantification and mechanism. Food Chem. 233: 216–227. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.115
Pinto, M.E., Araújo S.G., Morais M.I., Sa N.P., Lima C.M., Rosa C.A., et al. 2017. Antifungal and antioxidant activ-ity of fatty acid methyl esters from vegetable oils. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 89: 1671–1681. 10.1590/0001-3765201720160908
Qdais H.A., and Alshraideh H. 2016. Selection of management option for solid waste from olive oil industry using the analyt-ical hierarchy process. J Mat Cycles Waste Manag. 18: 177–185. 10.1007/s10163-014-0321-3
Radić K., Jurišić Dukovski B., and Vitali Čepo D. 2020). Influence of pomace matrix and cyclodextrin encapsulation on olive pom-ace polyphenols’ bioaccessibility and intestinal permeability. Nutrients. 12: 669. 10.3390/nu12030669
Rahman M., Ahmad S., Mohamed M., and Ab Rahman M. 2014. Antimicrobial compounds from leaf extracts of Jatropha cur-cas, Psidium guajava, and Andrographis paniculata. Sci World J. Article ID 635240. 8 pages. 10.1155/2014/635240
Reboredo-Rodríguez P., González-Barreiro C., Martínez-Carballo E., Cambeiro-Pérez N., Rial-Otero, Figueiredo-González M and Cancho-Grande B. 2021. Applicability of an in-vitro digestion model to assess the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds from olive-related products. Molecules. 26: 6667. 10.3390/molecules26216667
Ribeiro T.B., Campos D., Oliveira A., Nunes J., Vicente A.A., and Pintado M2021. Study of olive pomace antioxidant dietary fibre powder throughout gastrointestinal tract as multisource of phe-nolics, fatty acids and dietary fibre. Food Res Int. 142: 110032. 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.110032
Rice G.E., Scholz-Romero K., Sweeney E., Peiris H., Kobayashi M., Duncombe G., et al. 2015. The effect of glucose on the release and bioactivity of exosomes from first trimester trophoblast cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 100: E1280–E1288. 10.1210/jc.2015-2270
Rodrigues R., Alves R.C., and Oliveira M.B.P. 2023. Exploring olive pomace for Skincare applications: a review. Cosmetics. 10: 35.
Rodrigues F., da Mota Nunes M.A., and Oliveira M.B.P.P. 2017. Applications of recovered bioactive compounds in cosmetics and health care products. Ch. 12. In “Olive Mill Waste”. C.M. Galanakis (Ed.). Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherland, pp. 255–274. 10.1016/B978-0-12-805314-0.00012-1
Rubio-Senent F.T., Rodríguez-Gutíerrez G., Lama-Muñoz A., and Fernández-Bolaños J. 2012. New phenolic compounds hydro-thermally extracted from the olive oil byproduct alperujo and their antioxidative activities. J Agric Food Chem. 60: 1175–1186. 10.1021/jf204223w
Sala-Vila A., Fleming J., Kris-Etherton P., and Ros E. 2022. Impact of α-linolenic acid, the vegetable ω-3 fatty acid, on cardiovascu-lar disease and cognition. Adv Nutr. 13: 1584–1602. 10.1093/advances/nmac016
Sánchez-Gutiérrez M., Gómez-García R., Carrasco E., Bascón- Villegas I., Rodríguez A., and Pintado M. 2022. Quercus ilex leaf as a functional ingredient: polyphenolic profile and antioxidant activity throughout simulated gastrointestinal digestion and antimicrobial activity. J Funct Foods. 91: 105025. 10.1016/j.jff.2022.105025
Schepetkin I.A., Plotnikov M.B., Khlebnikov A.I., Plotnikova T.M., and Quinn M.T. 2021. Oximes: novel therapeutics with anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory potential. Biomolecules. 11: 777. 10.3390/biom11060777
Singh S., Nair V., Jain S., and Gupta Y. 2008. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of plant lipids containing α-linolenic acid. Indian J Exper Biol. 46(6): 453–456. 10.3390/biom11060777
Skaltsounis A.L., Argyropoulou A., Aligiannis N., and Xynos N. 2015. Recovery of high-added value compounds from olive tree products and olive processing byproducts. Ch. 11. In “Olive and olive oil bioactive constituents”. D. Boskou (Ed.). Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 333–356. 10.1016/B978-1-63067-041-2.50017-3.
Sultana B., Anwar F., and Ashraf M. 2009. Effect of extraction sol-vent/technique on the antioxidant activity of selected medic-inal plant extracts. Molecules. 14(6): 2167–2180. 10.3390/molecules14062167
Surowiak A.K., Lochyński S., and Strub D.J. 2020. Unsubstituted oximes as potential therapeutic agents. Symmetry. 12: 575. 10.3390/sym12040575
Takahama U., and Hirota S. 2018. Interactions of flavonoids with α-amylase and starch slowing down its digestion. Food Funct. 9: 677–687. 10.1039/c7fo01539a
Tamilmani E., Radhakrishnan R., and Sankaran K. 2018. 13-Docosenamide release by bacteria in response to glucose during growth—fluorescein quenching and clinical applica-tion. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 102: 6673–6685. 10.1007/s00253-018-9127-x
Thaipong K., Boonprakob U., Crosby K., Cisneros-Zevallos L., and Byrne D.H. 2006. Comparison of ABTS, DPPH, FRAP, and ORAC assays for estimating antioxidant activity from guava fruit extracts. J Food Comp Analy. 19: 669–675. 10.1016/j.jfca.2006.01.003
Valta K., Aggeli E., Papadaskalopoulou C., Panaretou V., Sotiropoulos A., Malamis D., et al. 2015. Adding value to olive oil production through waste and wastewater treatment and valorisation: the case of Greece. Waste Biomass Valoriz. 6: 913–925.
Velderrain-Rodriguez G., Quiros-Sauceda A., Mercado-Mercado G., Ayala-Zavala J.F., Astiazaran-Garcia H., Robles-Sánchez R.M., et al. 2016. Effect of dietary fiber on the bioaccessibility of phe-nolic compounds of mango, papaya and pineapple fruits by an in vitro digestion model. Food Sci Technol. 36: 188–194. 10.1590/1678-457X.6729
Vlček B. 1972. Potentiation of the immune response with DCA. Prakticky Lekar. 52: 326–330.
Waghmode, S., Suryavanshi M., Sharma D., and Satpute S.K. 2020. Planococcus species–an imminent resource to explore bio-surfactant and bioactive metabolites for industrial applica-tions. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 8: 996. 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00996
Wang C., Wu H., Liu Z., Barrow C., Dunshea F., and Suleria H.A. 2022. Bioaccessibility and movement of phenolic com- pounds from tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation. Food Funct. 13: 4954–4966. 10.1039/d2fo00223j
Waterhouse A.L. 2002. Determination of total phenolics. Curr Prot Food Anal Chem. 6: I1.1.1–I1.1.8.
Wojtunik-Kulesza K., Oniszczuk A., Oniszczuk T., Combrzyński M., Nowakowska D., and Matwijczuk A. 2020. Influence of in vitro digestion on composition, bioaccessibility and antioxidant activ-ity of food polyphenols—a non-systematic review. Nutrients. 12: 1401. 10.3390/nu12051401
Zhang Y., and Chang S.K.. 2019. Comparative studies on ACE inhibition, degree of hydrolysis, antioxidant property and phenolic acid com-position of hydrolysates derived from simulated in vitro gastroin-testinal proteolysis of three thermally treated legumes. Food Chem. 281: 154–162. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.12.090
Zhang Y.J., Gan R.Y., Li S., Zhou Y., Li A.N., Xu D.P., et al. 2015. Antioxidant phytochemicals for the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases. Molecules. 20(12): 21138–21156. 10.3390/molecules201219753
Zhu Y., Yang S., Huang Y., Huang J., and Li Y. 2021. Effect of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on phenolic compounds and antiox-idant properties of soluble and insoluble dietary fibers derived from hulless barley. J Food Sci. 86: 628–634. 10.1111/1750-3841.15592