Effects of the drying method for flowers of Cynara cardunculus var. Altilis on milk coagulating properties
Main Article Content
Keywords
clotting activity, Cynara cardunculus, drying process, maceration time
Abstract
In the production of some traditional cheeses from vegetable rennet, raw extracts of Cynara cardunculus flowers are used as the coagulant. During the preparation of this rennet, there are many factors that can influence its coagulation activity. We studied the flowers of Cynara cardunculus var. altilis to evaluate the effects of some of these factors: ripening stage of the flower at harvest, type of drying, part of the flower subjected to drying, toasting of the pistils, and maceration time of the pistils. The results show that it is possible to improve the coagulation activity of the traditional preparation of Cynara cardunculus flowers through some practices such as the rapid drying of the flowers/pistils at a controlled temperature, the toasting treatment of the pistils carried out after the slow drying of the flowers, and the extension of the extraction time to 24 h.
References
Agboola, S., Chen, S. and Zhao, J., 2004. Formation of bitter peptides during ripening of ovine milk cheese made with different coagulants. Lait 84: 567–578. 10.1051/lait:2004032
Alavi, F. and Momen, S., 2020. Aspartic proteases from thistle flowers: traditional coagulants used in the modern cheese industry. International Dairy Journal 107: 104709. 10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104709
Aleandri, R., Schneider, J.C. and Buttazzoni, L., 1989. Evaluation of milk for Cheese production based on milk characteristics and formagraph measures. Journal Dairy Science 72: 1967–1975. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(89)79319-X
Almeida, C.M. and Simões, I., 2018. Cardoon-based rennets for cheese production. Applied Microbiology Biotechnology 102: 4675–4686. 10.1007/s00253-018-9032-3
Barbosa, M., Corradini, C. and Battistotti, B., 1981. Cheese-making experiments carried out on some Italian cheeses with vegetable rennet from cardo (Cynara cardunculus L.). Scienza Tecnica Lattiero Casearia 32: 203–221.
Barros, R.M., Ferreira, C.A., Silva, S.V. and Malcata, F.X., 2001. Quantitative studies on the enzymatic hydrolysis of milk proteins brought about by cardosins precipitated by ammonium sulfate. Enzyme Microbiology Technology 29: 541–547. 10.1016/S0141-0229(01)00431-8
Ben Amira, A., Makhlouf, I., Flaviu Petrut, R., Francis, F., Bauwens, J., Attia, H., Besbes, S. and Blecker, C., 2017. Effect of extraction pH on techno-functional properties of crude extracts from wild cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.) flowers. Food Chemistry 225: 258–266. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.040
Bittante, G., 2011. Modeling rennet coagulation time and curd firmness of milk. Journal Dairy Science 94: 5821–5832. 10.3168/jds.2011-4514
Conceição, C., Martins, P., Alvarenga, N., Dias, J., Lamy, E., Garrido, L., Gomes, S., Freiras, S., Belo, A., Brás, T., Paulino, A. and Duarte, M.F., 2018. Cynara cardunculus: use in cheesemaking and pharmaceutical applications. In: Koca, N. (ed.) Technological approaches for novel applications in dairy processing. Intech Open, Vol. 1, pp. 73–107.
Cordeiro, M.C., Salome, M.P. and Brodelius, P.E., 1994. Tissue-specific expression of multiple forms of cyprosin (aspartic proteinase) in flowers of Cynara cardunculus. Physiology Plant 92: 645–653. 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1994.tb03035.x
Correia, P., Vítor, A., Tenreiro, M., Correia, A.C., Madanelo, J. and Guiné, R.P.F., 2016. Effect of different thistle flower ecotypes as milk-clotting in Serra da Estrela cheese. Nutrition Food Science 46: 458–475. 10.1108/NFS-12-2015-0157
Delacroix-Buchet, A., Barillet, F. and Lagriffoul, G., 1994. Caractérisation de l’aptitude fromagère des laits de brebis Lacaune à l’aide d’un Formagraph. Lait 74: 173–186. 10.1051/lait:1994315
Duranti, E., Bolla, P., Caroli, A., Chiofalo, L., Di Stasio, L., Fortina, R., Martini, M., Piccolo, V. and Zullo, A., 2003. Problems concerning ovine milk clotting aptitude. Italian Journal Animal Science 2: 89–95. 10.4081/ijas.2003.89
Folgado, A. and Abranches, R., 2020. Plant aspartic proteases for industrial applications: thistle get better. Plants (Basel) 9: 147–156. 10.3390/plants9020147
González-Rábadea, N., Badillo-Corona, J.A., Aranda-Barradas, J.S. and Oliver-Salvador, M.d.C., 2011. Production of plant proteases in vivo and in vitro–a review. Biotechnology Advances 29: 983–996. 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.08.017
Guiné, R.P.F., Tenreiro, M.I.C. and Correia, A.C., 2016. Analysis of factors influencing the physical, chemical and sensorial properties of Serra da Estrela cheeses. Food Measure 10: 643–657. 10.1007/s11694-016-9348-6
Haratifar, S. and Corredig, M., 2014. Interactions between tea catechins and casein micelles and their impact on renneting functionality. Food Chemistry 143: 27–32. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.07.092
Heimgartner, U., Pietrzak, M., Geertsen, R., Brodelius, P., da Silva Figueiredo, A.C. and Pais, M.S.S., 1990. Purification and partial characterization of milk clotting proteases from flowers of Cynara cardunculus. Phytochemistry 29(5): 140–141. 10.1016/0031-9422(90)80090-4
ISO 23058–IDF 199: 2006. Milk and milk products–ovine and caprine rennets–determination of total milk–clotting activity.
Johnson, M.E., Chen, C.M. and Jaeggi, J.J., 2001. Effect of rennet coagulation time on composition, yield, and quality of reduced-fat cheddar cheese. Journal of Dairy Science 84(5): 1027–1033. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(01)74562-6
Liburdi, K., Boselli, C., Giangolini, G., Amatiste, S. and Esti, M., 2019. An evaluation of the clotting properties of three plant rennets in the milks of different animal species. Foods 8: 600–612. 10.3390/foods8120600
Lo Piero, A.R., Puglisi, I. and Petrone, G., 2002. Characterization of “lettucine,” a serine-like protease from Lactuca sativa leaves, as a novel enzyme for milk clotting. Journal Agricultural Food Chemitry 50: 2439−2443. 10.1021/jf011269k
Macedo, I.Q., Faro, C.J. and Pires, E.M., 1993. Specificity and kinetics of the milk-clotting enzyme from cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.) towards bovine κ-casein. Journal Agricoltural Food Chemistry 41: 1537–1540. 10.1021/jf00034a001
Macedo, I.Q., Faro, C.J. and Pires, E.M., 1996. Caseinolytic specificity of cardosin, an aspartic protease from cardoon Cynara cardunculus L.: action on bovine alfa-s1 and beta-casein and comparison with chymosin. Journal Agricultural Food Chemistry 44: 42–47. 10.1021/jf9406929
Mandim, F., Spyridon, A.P., Kyriakos, D.G., Dias, M.I., Fernandes, Â., Pinela, J., Kostic, M., Soković, M., Barros, L., Santos-Buelga, C. and Ferreira, I.C.F.R., 2020. Seasonal variation of bioactive properties and phenolic composition of Cynara cardunculus var. altilis. Food Research International 134: 109281. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127744
Mariani, P., Summer, A., Zanzucchi, G. and Fieni, S., 1997. Relazione tra la consistenza del coagulo–valutata con differenti criteri mediante Formagraph–e il contenuto di caseina del latte. Annali Facoltà Medicina Veterinaria, Università Parma 17: 195–204.
Martins, A.P.L., De Vasconcelos, M.P. and De Sousas, R.B., 1996. Thistle (Cynara cardunculus L) flower as a coagulant agent for cheesemaking. Short characterization. Lait 76: 473–477. 10.1051/lait:1996536
McMahon, D.J. and Brown, R.J., 1982. Evaluation of formagraph for comparing rennet solutions. Journal Dairy Science 65: 1639–1642. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(82)82390-4
Ng-Kwai-Hang, K.F., Politis, I., Cue, R.I. and Marziali, A.S., 1989. Correlations between coagulation properties of milk and cheese yielding capacity and cheese composition. Canadian Institute Food Science Technology Journal 22: 291–294. 10.1016/S0315-5463(89)70397-7
Okigbo, L.M., Richardson, G.H., Brown, R.J. and Ernstrom, C.A., 1985. Coagulation properties of abnormal and normal milk for individual cow quarters. Journal Dairy Science 68: 1893–1895. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(85)81046-8
Ordiales, E., Martín, A., Benito, M.J., Hernández, A., Ruiz-Moyano, S. and Córdoba, M.G., 2012. Technological characterisation by free zone capillary electrophoresis (FCZE) of the vegetable rennet (Cynara cardunculus) used in “Torta del Casar” cheese-making. Food Chemistry 133: 227–235. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.01.012
Pelissier, J.P. and Manchon, P., 1976. Comparative study of the bitter taste of enzymic hydrolysates from cow, ewe and goat caseins. Journal Food Science 41: 231–233. 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1976.tb00590.x
Pissarra, J., Pereira, C., Soares da Costa, D., Figueiredo, R., Duarte, P., Teixeira, J. and Pereira, S., 2007. From flower to seed germination in Cynara cardunculus: a role for aspartic proteinases. International Journal Plant Development Biology 1: 274–281. Available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10216/82523
Pretto, D., De Marchi, M., Penasa, M. and Cassandro, M., 2012. Effect of milk composition and coagulation traits on Grana Padano cheese yield under field conditions. Journal of Dairy Research 80: 1–5. 10.1017/S0022029912000453
Ramos, P.A.B., Santos, S.A.O., Guerra, Â.R., Guerreiro, O., Freire, C.S.R., Rocha, S.M., Duarte, M.F. and Silvestre, A.J.D., 2014. Phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of different morphological parts of Cynara cardunculus L. var. altilis (DC). Industrial Crops Products 61: 460–471. 10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.07.042
Roseiro, L.B., Barbosa, M., Ames, J.M. and Wilbey, R.A., 2003. Cheesemaking with vegetable coagulants–the use of Cynara L. for the production of ovine milk cheeses. International Journal Dairy Technology 56: 76–85. 10.1046/j.1471-0307.2003.00080.x
Shah, M.A., Mir, S.A. and Paray, M.A., 2014. Plant proteases as milk-clotting enzymes in cheesemaking: a review. Dairy Science and Technology 94: 5–16. 10.1007/s13594-013-0144-3
Silva, S.V., Allmere, T., Malcata, F.X. and Andrén, A., 2003. Comparative studies on the gelling properties of cardosins extracted from Cynara cardunculus and chymosin on cow’s skim milk. International Dairy Journal 13: 559–564. 10.1016/S0958-6946(03)00075-X
Silva, S.V. and Malcata, F.X., 1998. Proteolysis of ovine caseins by cardosin A, an aspartic acid proteinase from Cynara cardunculus L. Lait 78: 513–519. 10.1051/lait:1998548
Silva, S.V. and Malcata, F.X., 1999. On the activity and specificity of cardosin B, a plant proteinase, on ovine caseins. Food Chemistry 67: 373–378. 10.1016/S0308-8146(99)00126-0
Silva, S.V., Pihlanto, A. and Malcata, F.X., 2006. Bioactive peptides in ovine and caprine cheese like systems prepared with proteases from Cynara cardunculus. Dairy Science 89: 3336–3344. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72370-0
Sousa, M.J. and Malcata, F.X., 1996. Effects of processing conditions on the caseinolytic activity of crude extracts of Cynara cardunculus L. Food Science Technology International 2: 255–263. 10.1177/F108201329600200408
Sousa, M.J. and Malcata, F.X., 2002. Advances in the role of a plant coagulant (Cynara cardunculus) in vitro and during ripening of cheeses from several milk species. Lait 82: 151–170. 10.1051/lait:2002001
Veríssimo, P., Esteves, C., Faro, C. and Pires, E., 1995. The vegetable rennet of Cynara cardunculus L. contains two proteinases with chymosin and pepsin-like specificities. Biotechnology Letters 17: 621–626. 10.1007/BF00129389
Wang, L., Wang, M., Li, Q., Cai, T. and Jiang, W., 2008. Partial properties of an aspartic protease in bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) fruit and its activation by heating. Food Chemistry 108: 496–502. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.10.085
Yildirim-Elikoglu, S. and Erdem, Y.K., 2018. Interactions between milk proteins and polyphenols: binding mechanisms, related changes, and the future trends in the dairy industry. Food Reviews International 34: 665–697. 10.1080/87559129.2017.1377225
Zannoni, M. and Annibaldi, S., 1981. Standardization of the renneting ability of milk by formagraph–I. Scienza Tecnica Lattiero Casearia 32: 79–94.
Alavi, F. and Momen, S., 2020. Aspartic proteases from thistle flowers: traditional coagulants used in the modern cheese industry. International Dairy Journal 107: 104709. 10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104709
Aleandri, R., Schneider, J.C. and Buttazzoni, L., 1989. Evaluation of milk for Cheese production based on milk characteristics and formagraph measures. Journal Dairy Science 72: 1967–1975. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(89)79319-X
Almeida, C.M. and Simões, I., 2018. Cardoon-based rennets for cheese production. Applied Microbiology Biotechnology 102: 4675–4686. 10.1007/s00253-018-9032-3
Barbosa, M., Corradini, C. and Battistotti, B., 1981. Cheese-making experiments carried out on some Italian cheeses with vegetable rennet from cardo (Cynara cardunculus L.). Scienza Tecnica Lattiero Casearia 32: 203–221.
Barros, R.M., Ferreira, C.A., Silva, S.V. and Malcata, F.X., 2001. Quantitative studies on the enzymatic hydrolysis of milk proteins brought about by cardosins precipitated by ammonium sulfate. Enzyme Microbiology Technology 29: 541–547. 10.1016/S0141-0229(01)00431-8
Ben Amira, A., Makhlouf, I., Flaviu Petrut, R., Francis, F., Bauwens, J., Attia, H., Besbes, S. and Blecker, C., 2017. Effect of extraction pH on techno-functional properties of crude extracts from wild cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.) flowers. Food Chemistry 225: 258–266. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.040
Bittante, G., 2011. Modeling rennet coagulation time and curd firmness of milk. Journal Dairy Science 94: 5821–5832. 10.3168/jds.2011-4514
Conceição, C., Martins, P., Alvarenga, N., Dias, J., Lamy, E., Garrido, L., Gomes, S., Freiras, S., Belo, A., Brás, T., Paulino, A. and Duarte, M.F., 2018. Cynara cardunculus: use in cheesemaking and pharmaceutical applications. In: Koca, N. (ed.) Technological approaches for novel applications in dairy processing. Intech Open, Vol. 1, pp. 73–107.
Cordeiro, M.C., Salome, M.P. and Brodelius, P.E., 1994. Tissue-specific expression of multiple forms of cyprosin (aspartic proteinase) in flowers of Cynara cardunculus. Physiology Plant 92: 645–653. 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1994.tb03035.x
Correia, P., Vítor, A., Tenreiro, M., Correia, A.C., Madanelo, J. and Guiné, R.P.F., 2016. Effect of different thistle flower ecotypes as milk-clotting in Serra da Estrela cheese. Nutrition Food Science 46: 458–475. 10.1108/NFS-12-2015-0157
Delacroix-Buchet, A., Barillet, F. and Lagriffoul, G., 1994. Caractérisation de l’aptitude fromagère des laits de brebis Lacaune à l’aide d’un Formagraph. Lait 74: 173–186. 10.1051/lait:1994315
Duranti, E., Bolla, P., Caroli, A., Chiofalo, L., Di Stasio, L., Fortina, R., Martini, M., Piccolo, V. and Zullo, A., 2003. Problems concerning ovine milk clotting aptitude. Italian Journal Animal Science 2: 89–95. 10.4081/ijas.2003.89
Folgado, A. and Abranches, R., 2020. Plant aspartic proteases for industrial applications: thistle get better. Plants (Basel) 9: 147–156. 10.3390/plants9020147
González-Rábadea, N., Badillo-Corona, J.A., Aranda-Barradas, J.S. and Oliver-Salvador, M.d.C., 2011. Production of plant proteases in vivo and in vitro–a review. Biotechnology Advances 29: 983–996. 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.08.017
Guiné, R.P.F., Tenreiro, M.I.C. and Correia, A.C., 2016. Analysis of factors influencing the physical, chemical and sensorial properties of Serra da Estrela cheeses. Food Measure 10: 643–657. 10.1007/s11694-016-9348-6
Haratifar, S. and Corredig, M., 2014. Interactions between tea catechins and casein micelles and their impact on renneting functionality. Food Chemistry 143: 27–32. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.07.092
Heimgartner, U., Pietrzak, M., Geertsen, R., Brodelius, P., da Silva Figueiredo, A.C. and Pais, M.S.S., 1990. Purification and partial characterization of milk clotting proteases from flowers of Cynara cardunculus. Phytochemistry 29(5): 140–141. 10.1016/0031-9422(90)80090-4
ISO 23058–IDF 199: 2006. Milk and milk products–ovine and caprine rennets–determination of total milk–clotting activity.
Johnson, M.E., Chen, C.M. and Jaeggi, J.J., 2001. Effect of rennet coagulation time on composition, yield, and quality of reduced-fat cheddar cheese. Journal of Dairy Science 84(5): 1027–1033. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(01)74562-6
Liburdi, K., Boselli, C., Giangolini, G., Amatiste, S. and Esti, M., 2019. An evaluation of the clotting properties of three plant rennets in the milks of different animal species. Foods 8: 600–612. 10.3390/foods8120600
Lo Piero, A.R., Puglisi, I. and Petrone, G., 2002. Characterization of “lettucine,” a serine-like protease from Lactuca sativa leaves, as a novel enzyme for milk clotting. Journal Agricultural Food Chemitry 50: 2439−2443. 10.1021/jf011269k
Macedo, I.Q., Faro, C.J. and Pires, E.M., 1993. Specificity and kinetics of the milk-clotting enzyme from cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.) towards bovine κ-casein. Journal Agricoltural Food Chemistry 41: 1537–1540. 10.1021/jf00034a001
Macedo, I.Q., Faro, C.J. and Pires, E.M., 1996. Caseinolytic specificity of cardosin, an aspartic protease from cardoon Cynara cardunculus L.: action on bovine alfa-s1 and beta-casein and comparison with chymosin. Journal Agricultural Food Chemistry 44: 42–47. 10.1021/jf9406929
Mandim, F., Spyridon, A.P., Kyriakos, D.G., Dias, M.I., Fernandes, Â., Pinela, J., Kostic, M., Soković, M., Barros, L., Santos-Buelga, C. and Ferreira, I.C.F.R., 2020. Seasonal variation of bioactive properties and phenolic composition of Cynara cardunculus var. altilis. Food Research International 134: 109281. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127744
Mariani, P., Summer, A., Zanzucchi, G. and Fieni, S., 1997. Relazione tra la consistenza del coagulo–valutata con differenti criteri mediante Formagraph–e il contenuto di caseina del latte. Annali Facoltà Medicina Veterinaria, Università Parma 17: 195–204.
Martins, A.P.L., De Vasconcelos, M.P. and De Sousas, R.B., 1996. Thistle (Cynara cardunculus L) flower as a coagulant agent for cheesemaking. Short characterization. Lait 76: 473–477. 10.1051/lait:1996536
McMahon, D.J. and Brown, R.J., 1982. Evaluation of formagraph for comparing rennet solutions. Journal Dairy Science 65: 1639–1642. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(82)82390-4
Ng-Kwai-Hang, K.F., Politis, I., Cue, R.I. and Marziali, A.S., 1989. Correlations between coagulation properties of milk and cheese yielding capacity and cheese composition. Canadian Institute Food Science Technology Journal 22: 291–294. 10.1016/S0315-5463(89)70397-7
Okigbo, L.M., Richardson, G.H., Brown, R.J. and Ernstrom, C.A., 1985. Coagulation properties of abnormal and normal milk for individual cow quarters. Journal Dairy Science 68: 1893–1895. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(85)81046-8
Ordiales, E., Martín, A., Benito, M.J., Hernández, A., Ruiz-Moyano, S. and Córdoba, M.G., 2012. Technological characterisation by free zone capillary electrophoresis (FCZE) of the vegetable rennet (Cynara cardunculus) used in “Torta del Casar” cheese-making. Food Chemistry 133: 227–235. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.01.012
Pelissier, J.P. and Manchon, P., 1976. Comparative study of the bitter taste of enzymic hydrolysates from cow, ewe and goat caseins. Journal Food Science 41: 231–233. 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1976.tb00590.x
Pissarra, J., Pereira, C., Soares da Costa, D., Figueiredo, R., Duarte, P., Teixeira, J. and Pereira, S., 2007. From flower to seed germination in Cynara cardunculus: a role for aspartic proteinases. International Journal Plant Development Biology 1: 274–281. Available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10216/82523
Pretto, D., De Marchi, M., Penasa, M. and Cassandro, M., 2012. Effect of milk composition and coagulation traits on Grana Padano cheese yield under field conditions. Journal of Dairy Research 80: 1–5. 10.1017/S0022029912000453
Ramos, P.A.B., Santos, S.A.O., Guerra, Â.R., Guerreiro, O., Freire, C.S.R., Rocha, S.M., Duarte, M.F. and Silvestre, A.J.D., 2014. Phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of different morphological parts of Cynara cardunculus L. var. altilis (DC). Industrial Crops Products 61: 460–471. 10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.07.042
Roseiro, L.B., Barbosa, M., Ames, J.M. and Wilbey, R.A., 2003. Cheesemaking with vegetable coagulants–the use of Cynara L. for the production of ovine milk cheeses. International Journal Dairy Technology 56: 76–85. 10.1046/j.1471-0307.2003.00080.x
Shah, M.A., Mir, S.A. and Paray, M.A., 2014. Plant proteases as milk-clotting enzymes in cheesemaking: a review. Dairy Science and Technology 94: 5–16. 10.1007/s13594-013-0144-3
Silva, S.V., Allmere, T., Malcata, F.X. and Andrén, A., 2003. Comparative studies on the gelling properties of cardosins extracted from Cynara cardunculus and chymosin on cow’s skim milk. International Dairy Journal 13: 559–564. 10.1016/S0958-6946(03)00075-X
Silva, S.V. and Malcata, F.X., 1998. Proteolysis of ovine caseins by cardosin A, an aspartic acid proteinase from Cynara cardunculus L. Lait 78: 513–519. 10.1051/lait:1998548
Silva, S.V. and Malcata, F.X., 1999. On the activity and specificity of cardosin B, a plant proteinase, on ovine caseins. Food Chemistry 67: 373–378. 10.1016/S0308-8146(99)00126-0
Silva, S.V., Pihlanto, A. and Malcata, F.X., 2006. Bioactive peptides in ovine and caprine cheese like systems prepared with proteases from Cynara cardunculus. Dairy Science 89: 3336–3344. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72370-0
Sousa, M.J. and Malcata, F.X., 1996. Effects of processing conditions on the caseinolytic activity of crude extracts of Cynara cardunculus L. Food Science Technology International 2: 255–263. 10.1177/F108201329600200408
Sousa, M.J. and Malcata, F.X., 2002. Advances in the role of a plant coagulant (Cynara cardunculus) in vitro and during ripening of cheeses from several milk species. Lait 82: 151–170. 10.1051/lait:2002001
Veríssimo, P., Esteves, C., Faro, C. and Pires, E., 1995. The vegetable rennet of Cynara cardunculus L. contains two proteinases with chymosin and pepsin-like specificities. Biotechnology Letters 17: 621–626. 10.1007/BF00129389
Wang, L., Wang, M., Li, Q., Cai, T. and Jiang, W., 2008. Partial properties of an aspartic protease in bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) fruit and its activation by heating. Food Chemistry 108: 496–502. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.10.085
Yildirim-Elikoglu, S. and Erdem, Y.K., 2018. Interactions between milk proteins and polyphenols: binding mechanisms, related changes, and the future trends in the dairy industry. Food Reviews International 34: 665–697. 10.1080/87559129.2017.1377225
Zannoni, M. and Annibaldi, S., 1981. Standardization of the renneting ability of milk by formagraph–I. Scienza Tecnica Lattiero Casearia 32: 79–94.
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